Bo Techniques, Forms, and Partner Practices of Ancient Okinawan Fighting Traditions. Volume 1: Bo-odori.
US $ 44
6″ x 9″ (15.24 x 22.86 cm)
XXXIV, 266 pages
ISBN: 979-8880149520
First Printing: 2024
Independently published.
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Ancient bōjutsu, bō-odori, bō-furi, or village bō from Okinawa received much less attention than its famous sister discipline of kobudō. However, to really understand Okinawan martial arts in general, these old traditions are a mirror of the past we must not ignore. Representing a captivating realm of Okinawan culture, the ancient art of the bō takes center stage in a dazzling array of performances. From the graceful finesse of bōjutsu to the rhythmic energy of lion dance bō, the island proudly boasts a rich tapestry of traditions. Within the fabric of these performances lies a hidden world—the realm of “The Last Secrets of Okinawan Martial Arts with Weaponry.”
BTW, I began the study of Okinawan Bo-odori thirteen years ago, with the first results published here. Good things take time.
Sound effects in karate and kobudo are an underestimated part of the art of performance. The best known example of it is slapping the uniform (dogi) with the pull back hand (hiki-te) while executing a technique with the other hand. The typical suspects of dogi-slapping are karate practitioners in the field of competitive karate, particularly those specializing in kata. Dogi-slapping really wouldn’t make sense in kumite either. And it’s true, sometimes techniques performed in the air during kata don’t feel powerful, nor are they perceived as such by the spectators and judges. The sound effect produced by slapping the dogi is therefore a popular dramatic element of many kata performances, and there are true masters of this art.
But this alone is not the full story. There are also plosives produced by the chest and mouth, which are synchronized in time with the dogi-slapping. And in Okinawa karate there is also the boiler breathing of Goju-ryu and the hissing of Uechi-ryu. The sychronisation becomes more difficult then.
Another underestimated effect is the rustling and clicking of the dogi, which is caused by the cut of the uniform, by a certain execution of the movement and its trajectory, a certain material composition, by washing and drying and adding or omitting fabric softeners, etc.
Some schools preach the gliding of the feet, while others prefer stomping sounds as an expression of a certain dynamic, and there are hybrids that use both variants skilfully to create a certain acoustic drama synchronized with the movement.
Cleverly employed stomping sounds are difficult to detect, especially when the movements are short and small and the performer’s demeanor draws attention to the upper extremities and the face. This method is also found on the makiwara, where synchronization of makiwara strikes with stomping sounds give the impression of considerable dynamism and destructive power.
On the one hand, one could say that the targeted use of such acoustic elements mainly serves to give the impression of dynamics and to impress an audience or judges. Why else are none of these tricks found in kumite, such as Kuyokushin? In this case, stomping sounds would be one of several theatrical sound effects to be synchronized with each other and with the movement to create a maximum dynamic impression without each being overly noticeable individually.
But there is also the completely opposite argument, namely that all these sound effects are simply the result of a correct, powerful technique. In this case, stomping would be one of several sound effects generated as an accompaniment to a functionally correct execution of technique, and which are synchronous with each other and with the technique because they are a function of the technique.
So the whole thing is a “chicken-egg causality dilemma,” which is notoriously difficult to solve.
Some schools use the heel stomp as a functional support of their technique execution.
Such sound effects are mainly used in the area of kata demonstrations, but also on the makiwara, in kihon, shime testing and other practices. They are not only used by certain groups among karate athletes, but are also found as fundamental components in so-called “traditional karate” and Okinawa karate. All groups also have their own sets of theatrical sound effects, which are synchronized both with each other and with the movement to create an overall impression. In many cases, you can tell which group is involved based solely on the properties of the artificially generated sounds. This alone is reason enough to pay attention to this phenomenon.
A significant factor in stomping is the ground surface. Therefore, people who train or perform on mats will emphasize different stomping parameters than those who train or perform on wooden floors, which greatly amplifies the stomping sound effect. Sprung floor will even provide you a tiny acceleration while at the same time it reduces the stress on the joints. On the other hand, people who train or perform on natural surfaces such as grass, sand, or stone will employ completely different types of foot movement, since there is no sound effect whatsoever. So the question arises whether the different stomping sound effects are not simply a result of the development of different training sites. Just imagine stomping on pointed pebble, or a sharp-edged coral stone.
It should be borne in mind that in Okinawa, by and large, dojos with wooden floors were built only in the modern era after 1945. From this perspective, pushing the feet with the toes over the ground should also be a rather new method, which at least requires straight and flat grounds such as mats or a sports ground, and is difficult to carry out on natural, uneven surfaces, where it would simply make little sense. Thus, it may be assumed that the stomping sound effect as a theatrical element in Okinawan dojos is a post-war development and may have had little to no functional significance in original karate and kobudo, except maybe in the mansions of the aristocratic udun and tunchi classes.
Abstract: This article provides an overview of the lexical meaning, subject areas and chronology of usage, as well as the terminological origin of the term shingitai.
Research method: For bibliographic queries, I used the National Diet Library of Japan (one of the largest libraries in the world), Webcat Plus (a search service for books and papers operated by the National Institute of Informatics in Japan), and CiNii (a bibliographic database service for materials in Japanese academic libraries, maintained by the National Institute of Informatics). Moreover, I used the term base Kotobank, a service allowing to search for the meaning of a term from entries in highly reliable Japanese dictionaries, encyclopedias, and databases.
Result: As expected, shingitai is by no means an ancient Japanese martial arts concept, but rather a construction of contemporary Japan. Two isolated cases appear in the 1940s, but shingitai really took a foothold since the 1950s, mostly in sumo, but spread out quickly to judo and kendo, until in the mid-1990s the media adopted it for the Japanese budo in general. In 2008, shingitai was finally included in the very definition of Japanese budo by a semi-official institution. During these decades, shingitai has also spread to all kinds of sports as well as many other professional fields, as shown in this article.
Terminological Introduction
Western online dictionaries translate shingitai as “mind, technique, and physical strength,” and as the “three qualities of a martial artist or athlete: heart, technique, strength.” This is consistent with the literal translation and partly with the scope of use shingitai.
Certainly, the compound noun shingitai comprises of the following terms (on-reading in bold, followed by kun-reading):
shin / kokoro: mind
gi / waza: technique
tai / karada: body
Therefore, in its simplest interpretation, shingitai means “mind, technique, and body.” At the same time, it insinuates the unity or trinity of its three compartments. Shingitai is commonly used extactly this sense in sports to mean a “balance of mind, body, and spirit.”
In addition, shingitai is further defined as a general term representing the desired unity of the following three compartments:
mental strength (seishin-ryoku, i.e. shin),
technique / skill (gijutsu, i.e., gi), and
physical strength (tairyoku, i.e., tai).
Equating the above, shingitai refers to “mental strength, skill, and physical strength,” and implies the unity thereof as a goal.
The above description is the sole main entry of shingitai found in all Japanese dictionaries referred to in the Kotobank term base. In addition, shingitai does not have an individual entry as a term in Japanese Wikipedia. This raises the question of its actual distribution in general Japanese language.
In Japanese Wikipedia, shingitai as a term is found in the entries about the Grand Slam Paris 2011, Satō Nobuyuki (Japanese marathon runner), Iwai Joshiki (Japanese baseball player), Hayashi Toshiyuki (Japanese rugby union player), Akaiwa Yoshio (Japanese boat racer), TV-show “Juken Sentai Gekiranger” (Beast-Fist Squadron Gekiranger), Ogasawara Hiroshi (Japanese rugby player), Fuji Sankei Ladies Classic (Golf), Takahashi Miyuki (Japanese volleyball player), as well as in a very few budō-related entries such as about “Monthly Budō” magazine, henka (variation of technique) in sumō, and budō. In short, shingitai is used heavily in relation to various sports.
About swimming, the Encyclopedia of Japan (Nipponica) says, “Performance in sports is the combined result of technique (gijutsu), physical strength (tairyoku), and willpower (kiryoku). The basic elements necessary to improve swimming records are (1) the swimming style and the techniques for starting and turning, (2) physical strength, stamina, endurance, and (3) mental strength to support them. In addition, strategic elements such as setting the pace that make use of mind, technique, and body (shingitai) are also important in the game. In particular, the elements of mind, technique, and body (shingitai) are improved through daily training. The extent to which a player can improve these depends on their individual qualities, but it also depends on how well they incorporate training methods based on scientific theories according to the characteristics of the player.”
While the above article mentions shingitai in general terms, it also describes it specifically for improving swimming performance through training, namely
gi or technique as “(1) the swimming style and the techniques for starting and turning,”
tai or body as “(2) physical strength, stamina, endurance,” and
shin or mind as “(3) mental strength to support them.”
The same text also gives shin as “willpower” (kiryoku).
The Japanese version of Britannica International Encyclopedia has shingitai in its entry on jūdō, saying that randori “is a practice method in which mind, technique, and body (shingitai) are trained to develop the ability to adapt to the situation, and to learn how to compete. When Kanō Jigorō founded jūdō, he emphasized the simultaneous practice of training of the spirit, competition, and physical education.”
From this it could be said that shingitai is found in jūdō as follows: shin refers to the training of the spirit (shūshin), gi refers to techniques applied in competition (shōbu), and tai refers to physical education (taiiku).
From the above, the nuance of the meaning of shingitai slightly shifted to the following:
shin: mind, mental strength, willpower, spirit
gi: technique, skill, techniques applied in a competition
tai: body, physical strength, physical education
Appearance of the term Shingitai in Budō
(Note: Due to time constrictions, all titles are quick English translations without full bibliographic reference)
Sumō
The term shingitai appears as early as 1942, in a sumō periodical, mentioning the “spirit, technique, and body (shingitai) of the three highest sumō ranks and their plunging into the fight” (Sumō 7(5), 1942-05, p. 66). Elsewhere it is said that “The spirit, technique, and body (shingitai) are harmoniously integrated, and the dignity of a yokozuna naturally oozes out” (Jinbutsu Ōrai 1-8, August 1952). It is reported that one wrestler “showed remarkable strength in mind, technique, and body (shingitai)” (Sumō 3(7), 1954-05, p. 36) and that another, “although he was exceptional already, his mind, technique, and body (shingitai) gradually improved, and in 1934 he was promoted to ōzeki, and in 1937 he was promoted to the long-awaited yokozuna, competing with Tamanishiki and Musashiyama (Sumō 4(9), 1955-06 p. 82). It is also published as a manly topic elsewhere, such as can be seen in “Shingitai: The 57thYokozuna Mienoumi Tsuyoshi,” published in the Monthly Construction Report by the Ministry of Construction in June (1980, p. 4-5). In July 1964, Kosaka Hideji wrote a special feature called “When will Tochinoumi’s mind, technique, and body (shingitai) be completed?” (Sumō, 1964-7, p 41-47).
In the following decades shingitai appeared in countless sumō-related publications, of which following is just a selection. In 1971, Futagoyama Katsuji, the 45thyokozuna also known as Wakanohana Kanji I., published “Mind, technique, and body (shingitai),” followed three years later by his “Introduction to mind, technique, and body (shingitai nyūmon).”
In 1972, the “Battle of Mind, Technique, and Body (shingitai)” by Taihō Kōki, 48thsumō grand champion was published in the extra-large new year’s edition of “Foresight Economy” magazine, which shows how shingitai entered the world of management early by way of sumō. In 2011, former sumō wrestler Mainoumi Shuhei published “Contradictions in the Sumō-Ring: The Truth in the Chaos of Grand Sumō Wrestling,” published by Business Japan, 2011, one of the first business magazines of Japan.
“Mind, technique, and body (shingitai)” magazine was published by the Sumō Research Group since 1983, and in 2011 the 58thyokozuna Chiyonofuji Mitsugu, published “The Power of the Rope” at Baseball Magazine under his later name Kokonoe Mitsugu.
The above is a glimpse of the use of shingitai as used in sumō. In fact, sumō-related publications dominated the overall use of shingitai until the late 1970. It therefore seems that shingitai first and foremost developed and evolved within the sumō world, and it continued to be used uninterruptedly in the context of sumō until today. It can be assumed that the use of the term shingitai radiated out from sumō publications to other fields to a considerable extent.
Kendō
In relation to kendō, the concept is found in 1955, saying “In this way, the opponent’s mind, technique, and body (shingitai) will be overwhelmed and he will lose his head, and with my sword pointed right at his center, I pierce through him to win.” (Sasamori Junzō: Kendō. Ōbunsha Sports Series, 1955, p. 54).
More recent publications are “The Strongest Kendō” (2008), Koyama Masaki’s “Samurai Learning with Japanese Swords: The Most Easy-to-understand Iaido Bible for Modern People” (2008), or “Kendō Practice Menu 200: Strengthen your mind, technique, and body!” (2012) by Koda Gunhide, a 8thdan kyōshi and professor of Tsukuba University, and Yano Hiroshi, 8thdan hanshi and former professor of Kokushikan University, published “Kendō – A Message from a Teacher” (Physical Education and Sports Publishing, 2017).
Jūdō
In a 1950s jūdō course edited by Mifune Kyūzō and others, it is said, “It is desirable to come to demonstrate the power of unified mind, technique, and body (shingitai).” (Mifune Kyūzō et.al.: Jūdō Course, Vol. 1, 1955, p. 33). In a magazine published by the Kōdōkan is found a chapter called “About the mind, technique, and body (shingitai) of 30 athletes participating in international games” (Jūdō 50 (11). Kōdōkan, November 1979, p. 17-23). In 1982, Yamashita Yasuhiro, one of Japan’s most successful jūdōka and 8thdan holder published “The Judo World’s No. 1! Yamashita 5th Dan’s mind, technique and body (shingitai).” Gold medalist of the 2000 Olympics and Japanese jūdō coach Inoue Kōsei provided “Strengthen your mind, techniques, and body (shingitai)! Judo basics and practice menu” in 2013.
Karate
In karate apparently shingitai appeared for the first time in 1952, when Konishi Yasuhiro mentions that, “a kiai will promote the unification of the trinity of spirit, technique, and body (shingitai), so as to occupy an undefeatable position” (Konishi Yasuhiro: Zukai Karate Nyūmon, 1952, p. 11). In 1956, again by Konishi Yashuhiro, the following words can be said to establish shingitai as a part of an ideal form of karate: “In other words, karate practitioners should pursue the trinity of mind, technique, and body (shingitai).” (Konishi Yasuhiro: Karate jōtatsu-hō. 1956, p. 10).
However, in karate literature, it wasn’t emphasized much, until, in 1990, we find shingitai in karate again “for those who aim to improve their mind, technique, and body” (Shiroishi Shōji: Karatedō kyōgi nyūmon. Baseball Magazine Publishers, 1990). This is followed by Hokama Tetsuhiro’s “The Essence of Okinawa Karate and Kobudō” (1999), where it appeared in the context of Okinawa karate and kobudō. Kyokushin adopted shingitai as well, as can be seen in “Karate revolutionary Hamai Noriyasu – Kyokushin’s New Theory” of 2009, followed by shingitai used in “Kuro Obi: Aim for an invincible black belt!” published by BAB Japan in 2011. Ushirō Kenji, who teaches karate worldwide, also published “Learn how to train your mind, technique and body (shingitai) from Ushirō Kenji” in 2011. While these are just examples, it is true that the number of karate books that feature shingitai are small, particularly when compared to sumō.
Aikidō
Shioda Yasuhisa, third Sōke of Yoshinkan Aikidō, wrote “50 Tips for Improving Aikidō: Master your mind, technique, and body (shingitai)!” in 2008, but otherwise the use of shingitai in aikidō seems rare, at least in publications, which is also true for kyūdō, for which at least “Modern Kyūdō Course, Volume 5” (1969) could be verified.
Book of Five Rings
An edition of the “Book of Five Rings” (1980) includes the chapter “Miyamoto Musashi’s mind, technique, and body (shingitai),” and editions by other authors from 1996 and 2002 again include a reference to shingitai.
Ninjutsu
By the 2010s, (shingitai) has entered the world of the ninja, with Kuroi Hiromitsu’s “Ninja Cram School: Mind, Technique, and Body (shingitai) learned from Ninja (2011), Kawakami Jin’ichi’s “Ninja: From the Origins to Ninjutsu and Weapons: Approach the Truth of the Army of Darkness!” (2012), and Komori Teruhisa’s “The Secret of the Ninja’s Unbeatable Spirit” (2017).
Budō as a whole
In any case, the time when shingitai began to not only be associated with individual Japanese arts, but formally entered the Japanese budō world en gros, was when the Nippon Budokan began to publish the magazine Gekkan Budō (Monthly Budō). While the first version of it which ran from 1974 to 1996, had no direct reference to shingitai, in 1997, an additional title was added, namely “Comprehensive magazine that nurtures mind, technique, and body (shingitai).” This was the point in time when the connection between budō and shingitai became quasi official.
A little more than 10 years later, shingitai found its way into the definition of the “Foundational Principles of Budō” (budō no rinen) by the Japanese Budō Association (Nippon Budō Kyōgikai) as follows.
Budō is an exercise culture that unifies mind and technique (shingi ichinyo) that is based on the training of martial techniques systematized in Japan, and it originates from the tradition of bushidō. By practising jūdō, kendō, kyūdō, sumō, karatedō, aikidō, Shōrinji kenpō, naginata, and jūkendō, it is a path to forge mind, technique, and body (shingitai) in unity, to refine one’s character, to raise one’s moral sense, to cultivate an attitude of respect for propriety, and to contribute to peace and prosperity of nation and society.
Established October 10, 2008
Japanese Budō Association (Nippon Budō Kyōgikai)
Kata-Theory
In 1989, historian Minamoto Ryōen wrote a work called “Kata” 型, asking “What is the ultimate kata – the unity of mind, technique, and body (shingitai) – that physical action aims for?” In this, he equates kata with the unity of mind, technique, and body, that is, shingitai. Chapter 2 is called “Thoughts on Body, Mind and Technique in Prehistory, Antiquity, and the Middle Ages.” From old texts of nō drama and kenjutusu, Minamoto traces the spiritual history of “kata.”
However, it seems to be an attempt to backdate shingitai as a concept existing since the origin of the Japanese nation.
Appearance of the term Shingitai in other contexts
Shingitai does only appear in budō, quite on the contraty. Below are publications from various other contexts and fields which also include shingitai.
Western sports
Moreover, early on shingitai was also heavily used in connection with Western sports, as can be seen in in a 1952 baseball magazine, which writes that, “A good man who never gives up, trains his mind, technique, and body (shingitai), respects himself, and eventually gains recognition from the world.”( Baseball Magazine. 1952, p. 36), and it is also mentioned in relation to table tennis (Nippon University, 1956-05, p. 24). Another example is the description that “a good strike comes out when a good hitter has the heart, technique, and body strength (shingitai),” (Baseball Magazine Vol.1, 11(1), 1956-01, p. 132). In 1962, Yaoita Hiroshi, co-founder of Yasaka Table Tennis Equipment, published “Table Tennis” (Takkyū), with chapter 2 emphasizing “The Unity of Mind, Technique, and Body (shingitai).” More recently, former professional baseball pitcher Takashi Saitō published “The magic spell of Mind, Technique, and Body that will definitely work!” in the “Whonk and One Blow”-Series, Vol. 9, 2005, and there are guidebooks such as “Mental Training for Baseball Players: Change your mindset, improve your concentration, and win!” (2008)
Hasegawa Shigetoshi, retired relief pitcher in Major League Baseball, best-selling author and Japanese television personality, published “Winning a Major: The Mind, Technique, and Body of Japanese Pitchers” (2011), while Tezuka Kazushi wrote “Batting Strategy Theory: Raise your batting average and aim for long hits” (2012). Tatsunami Kazuyoshi and Nomura Hiroki wrote “The secret to improving baseball with parents and children: Hints for success, mind, technique, and professional thinking that everyone can learn” (2022) and Iwai Seiku publishd “Iwai-style Hard Baseball. The royal road method to hone your mind, technique, and body” (2018).
Besides there is Andō Misako’s “You can win the game! Softball’s strongest tactics” (2012), Kawagoe Shinsuke’s “You can win the game! Futsal’s 50 strongest tactics (2013), and Hasegawa Tarō’s “How to prepare mind, technique and body (shingitai) to mass-produce goals in soccer” (2017).
All of the above address shingitai.
Management, Business, Guidebooks
Another interesting field using shingitai is that of industrial management, leadership, sales, business self-help literature and guidebooks. In a continuous series in an industrial management magazine, Hirano Hiroyuki introuces “MRP (Material Requirements Planning) for small and medium-sized manufacturers,” saying that “You can also create a MRP’s mind, technique, and body (shingitai) production schedule” (In: Factory Management 27(10)(346), 1981-09, p. 101-110), and Mito Kiyoshi wrote “Aiming to be a technician with a good balance of mind, technique, and body (shingitai)” (In: Skills and Techniques. Technical Journal for the Development of Vocational Ability (5)(204), 2000, p. 9-15, published by the Vocational Training College of the Employment Promotion Agency). Shingitai is found in “The Exploding Solar Cell Industry: Current Status and Future of the 25 Trillion Yen Market” (2008) as wel as in Shimane Masamitsu’s and Shimizu Toshiyuki’s “Mind, Technique, and Body (shingitai) for Entrepreneurship: Steps to an Innovative Way of Life” (2018).
Also, in case you didn’t know it, there are “77 Laws of employees who continue to be selected: There is a trick to getting promoted quickly!” (2009). You also might be interested in “Skillful business succession of a small company: For a rich life plan after retirement” (2009), “The Power of Capable Rookie Leaders: How Modern Newcomers Acquire Mind, Techniques, and Body Forms (2010), the “Aesthetics of the Bartender: The Tavern Equation” (2010) or “Nikaido Shigeto’s Golden Rules of Successful Trading: The Secrets of Making Stocks and Forex (2011).
Whether you’re looking for “A chairmans’s accounting that changes management in one hour” as a “Prescription to prevent cash flow bankruptcy” (2010), “Heart Voice – Talk Techniques for Tele Appointment Sales” (2011), or “An introduction to the mind, technique, and body (shingitai) of sexy women” – it is all there.
You might also consult “Shin-Gi-Tai in the U.S. and Japan as Seen in Data” (Commerce and Industry Journal 23 (6), pp. 40-41, 1997-06), “Build better homes organically” (2013), or “How to create your best self” (2013) by the Japan Management Association Management Center – shingitai is in it, and there are countless more beyond the following short selection.
Matsui Hideki: 100% Thinking that Breaks Down Walls. PHP Lab, 2011.
Yamamoto Kazutaka: MBA Thinking and Writing Techniques: The heart and technique of business documents. Toyo Keizai Shimposha, 2011.
Sakaue Hitoshi; Ogasawara Koji: The Esay Guide to Start Your Own Company in Japan. Medium, 2011.
Kitakage Yuyuki: Samurai Athlete Soul: Mind, Techniques, and Techniques Learned from Hagakure: A Must-Read for Leaders! Study Hard, 2012.
Komori Osamu: Kaizen Leader Training School. Nikkan Kogyo Shimbun, 2012.
Mori Shigekazu: The Power to Keep Winning: Morishige-style Staff Studies to Nurture a Tenacious Organization. Business Company, 2012.
The Complete Guide to Work Experience 34. Poplar Company, 2013.
Darjeeling Himalayan Railway – ‘Moving World Heritage’ at the Roof of the World in India. Kodansha, 2006.
Moritomo Sadao: Intellect and mind, technique, and body in quality manufacturing. Journal of the Japan Society for Precision Engineering 63 (2), pp. 158-161, 1997.
Sugashita Kiyohiro: How to Ride Your Life on the Uptrend. Best Sellers, 2013.
Matsuoka Shuzo: Repair manager – Head of Repair Department. Takarajimasha, 2017.
Uchiyama Hiroyuki: Mind, technique, and body to improve performance: The path to successful sales activities. The New Japan Insurance Company, 2002.
Shimane Masamitsu, Shimizu Toshiyuki; Ariyoshi Tokuhiro: Mind, Technique, and Body for Entrepreneurship: Steps to an Innovative Way of Life. Izumi Bundo, 2018.
Hirokawa Keisuke; Asayama Noboru et.al.: Mind, technique, and body of a project manager who does not fail in system introduction: Awareness for sustainable growth. Seiunsha, 2019.
Vocational
Already in 1943 shingitai appears in a periodical of the Japan Handicraft Research Association in connection with occupational training, so it seems that the concept reached into various fields, such as can be seen in the “New Electricity” periodal, which states, “In order to maintain superiority at all times, it is necessary to demonstrate the unity of shin, gi, and tai to the highest degree” (New Electricity. Ohm Publishing, 1957-01, p. 70), and it might also be seen in connection with company sports teams, transcending the boundary to the vocational world.
Board Games
Alread in the 1960s, shingitai is found in conncetion with board games, as can be seen in “Victory: Go and Guts” (1965) by Sakata Eio, 9thdan professional go player, which has a section called “Mind – Technique – Body (shingitai).” Makoto Nakahara, a former professional shogi player who had gained the rank of a 9thdan, wrote about “How to carry out self-development. ‘Match’ with comprehensive power of mind, technique, and body (shingitai),” published by the “Management Consultant,” 1973-5, p. 96-97.
Medical Science and Sports Psychology
In “A Medical Approach to Anthropology” (1989), Chapter 7 covers an “Approach to a Four-Dimensional Human Image from Mind, Technique, and Body (shingitai)” and 1997 saw “The SOP theory that made 21-year-old Tiger Woods who likes ‘hamburgers’ and ‘to win’ approach the mind, technique, and body (shingitai)” (Gendai 31 (12), pp. 186-193, 1997-12), while Kakegawa Akio wrote “A Surgeon’s Mental Attitude. Maintaining and Improving the Balance of Mind, Technique and Body (shingitai) will bring Good Results” (In: Surgery 63 (1), pp. 73-74, 2001-01-01). The 2010s saw the puclications such as Kodama Mitsuo’s “ATop Athlete’s Quote from Poor Life Theory” (2012), “Mind, technique, and body (shingitai) in academic drug discovery” (Kanazawa University Cancer Research Institute, 2013), “Marathon Sense and Running IQ” by Hosono Fumiaki (2018), and Sakurai Shoichi’s “Requirements for Gold Medalists: How to create top-notch mind, technique, and body (shingitai)” (2020). Reaching the 2020s, there is Miyaji Shigeru’s “New Cerebral Endovascular Therapy Book: 68 Moves of Miyaji-style Mind, Technique, and Body (shingitai)” (Medica, 2022).
Novels
Shingitai began to appear in novels, such as can be seen in “Since ancient times, this has been called mind, technique, and body (shingitai). Without these three things, you cannot become a full-fledged swordsman!” (Nakayama Mitsuyoshi: Tamiya Bōtarō, 1956, p. 72).
Music
Shingitai also found its way into music, such as in an introduction to “mind, technique and body of Katsumi Hagiya’s trombone playing” (Pipers, 1981-12, p. 34-39), or “Research on music expression using musical instruments (3). Prospects for wind and percussion activities in school education” (Bulletin of Tomakomai Komazawa University (3) pp. 1-19, 2000-03).
Takada Saburō provided a “Daily Training Book for Singing Higher” (2008), while Ayame Yoshinobu asks, “Is it possible to play in an ensemble today?” (Tokyo Metropolitan Foundation for History and Culture Arts Council Tokyo, 2020).
Education
Finally, in 1984, shingitai appears in the educational context (Educational Perspectives 30(2)(320), 1984), and ten years later in Physical Education (42(14), 1994), published by the Japan Sports Instructors Federation, including a special feature on “Sports and Mental Training” with research by Endō Takurō (“Human Mind and Body”) and Egawa Kinsei (“The Mind, Technique, and Body that Determines Competition Results”). The latter, Egawa Kinsei, already published “Conditions for Victory: Mental Training for Sportsmen” in 1986, which also includes references to shingitai.
There is the “Mind, technique, and body (shingitai) in English class” (2009), and Takano Michi’s “Thinking about Coaching: From the Perspective of Active Players” (Annual Meeting of Japan Society of Physical Education 44B (0), 1993), or Sato Hisao’s “Ordinary children became the best in Japan! Sendai High School’s Mind, Technique, and Body (shingitai)” (2001). And of course, as Saito Takashi saiud, “This will make school more fun” (2011).
In Germany, there is the series “Geist-Technik-Körper (shingitai): Writings on the background of Budo-Arts,” with the “History of Japanese Martial Arts” (1996), “Budō in today’s time” (1998), “Tobi-ishi: Stepping stones of a karate path: Experiences, experiences and reflections from four decades of karate practice” (2007), and others.
Various
Coaching and self-help publications feature shingitai, such as “Self-Coaching Learned from Ichiro’s Words: The 99.99 Law for Living Yourself” (2008). There is also the outdoor world with “Fishing Romance: What Fishing Taught Me” (2011) and hentai, such as “One Piece Nippon Longitudinal! 47 Cruise CD 42 (in Nagasaki Hentai – Franky goes to Nagasaki) (2015).
Politics and Administration
In 2020, Kawai Toshikazu described “Mind, technique, and body (shingitai) to fulfill the city hall staff,” and there are the “Prospects for Democratic Judiciary: Shinomiya’s 70th Anniversary Commemorative Papers: Expectations for the Citizens as a Governing Body” (2022).
Academic Research
Also in the field of academic publications, one instance of shingitai can be seen in the 1950s, saying “If the mind, technique and body (shingitai) are not united, good results cannot be achieved” (Nihon University 1(1), 1956-05, p. 24). However, in academic discourse, shingitai appeared rather late. A keyword search at Waseda University Repository shows that shingitai as an academic topic only appeared since 2004. The earliest result found at through a query at the University of Tokyo Library OPAC System is from 1998, namely “The Science of Thoroughbreds: The Mind, Techniques, and Body of Racehorses” by the Japan Central Racehorse Research Institute and published by Kodansha in 1998. This again raises the question of how much shingitai was actually and formally used in general or technical languages. Particularly in science and academics, the reason might be that it is already an outdated concept for most disciplines, particularly in medicine, psychology, neuroscience and the like.
The book “My Art and Skill of Karate” presents the technical knowledge and original accounts imparted by famed Okinawa karate master Motobu Chōki (1870-1944). This translation was created in close cooperation with the author’s grandson, Motobu Naoki sensei. It also includes a congratulatory address by the author’s son, Motobu Chōsei sensei, the current head of the school. Moreover, this year marks the 150th anniversary of Motobu Chōki’s birth. In other words, three generations of the Motobu family were involved in this new translation, connecting the history and tradition of karate from the 19th to 21th century.
(Note: The Kindle version does not include the glossary index and only a rudimentary TOC, so navigation is less reader-friendly than in the print version)
In addition to accounts about old-time karate masters in Okinawa, the work features thirty-four photos of Motobu performing Naihanchi Shodan, including written descriptions. Moreover, it includes twenty kumite with pictures and descriptions as well as five pictures of how to use the makiwara.
What makes it even more unique is that the existence of the book was unknown until the 1980s, when the wife of a deceased student sent the book to Motobu Chōki’s son, Chōsei. Until today this edition remains the only known original edition in existence, and it provided the basis for this original translation. This work has to be considered one of the most important sources to assess and interpret karate.
Motobu Chōki: “My Art and Skill of Karate” (2020)
My Art and Skill of Karate (Ryukyu Bugei Book 3), by Choki Motobu (Author), Andreas Quast (Tr./Ed.), Motobu Naoki (Tr.)
Troubled about the future of his only son and heir, a royal government official of the Ryukyu Kingdom wrote down his ‘Instructions’ as a code of practice for all affairs. Written in flowing, elegant Japanese, he refers to a wide spectrum of artistic accomplishments that the royal government officials were ought to study in those days, such as court etiquette, literature and poetry, music, calligraphy, the tea ceremony and so on.
The author, who achieved a remarkable skill level in wielding both the pen and the sword, also informs us about various martial arts practiced in those days. Translated from Japanese for the first time, from centuries-long puzzling seclusion the state of affairs surrounding an 18th century Okinawan samurai vividly resurrects in what is considered ‘Okinawa’s most distinguished literature.’
Okinawan Samurai — The Instructions of a Royal Official to his Only Son. By Aka/Ōta Pēchin Chokushiki (auth.), Andreas Quast (ed./transl.), Motobu Naoki (transl.).
5″ x 8″ (12.7 x 20.32 cm)
Black & White on Cream paper
218 pages
First Printing: 2018
ISBN-13: 978-1985331037
ISBN-10: 1985331039
Translated from Japanese for the first time!
“I think it is epoch-making that Quast sensei decided to translate the ‘Testament of Aka Pēchin Chokushiki,’ and not one of the famous historical or literary works such as the Chūzan Seikan or the Omoro Sōshi. … I believe this translation has significant implications for the future study of karate history and Ryūkyū history abroad. (Motobu Naoki, Shihan of the Motobu-ryū)
“It is one of THE most important primary sources for truly understanding the unabridged history of our arts first hand by a member of the very class of people who spawned Karate in the first place!” (Joe Swift, Karateologist, Tokyo-based)
“I highly recommend this new work by Andi Quast … as a MUST BUY book …” ( Patrick McCarthy, foremost western authority of Okinawan martial arts, modern and antique, anywhere he roams)
“I’m sure I’m going to learn and enjoy this book.” (Itzik Cohen, karate and kobudo man from Israel)
In the era of Old Ryukyu, a legendary warrior of Okinawan martial arts appeared on the center stage of the historical theatre. Due to his unique appearance and powerful physique—reminiscent of a wolf or a tiger—the people of that time called him Oni Ōshiro, or «Ōshiro the Demon.»
Also known as Uni Ufugushiku in the Okinawan pronunciation of his name, he had been variously described as the originator of the original Okinawan martial art «Ti» as well as the actual ancestor of a number of famous Okinawan karate masters, such as Mabuni Kenwa and others.
This is his narrative. Gleaned from the few primary sources available, which for the first time are presented here in the English language, the original heroic flavor of the source texts was kept intact.
«I invoke the Gods, To quake heaven and earth, To let the firmament resound, And to rescue the divine woman—Momoto Fumiagari.»
5″ x 8″(12.7 x 20.32 cm)
Black & White on Cream paper
94 pages ISBN-13: 978-1533486219 (CreateSpace-Assigned) ISBN-10: 1533486212 BISAC: Sports & Recreation / Martial Arts & Self-Defense
This is the true story of the seven virtues of martial arts as described by Matsumura Sokon. Considered the primary source-text of old-style Okinawan martial arts, the “Seven Virtues” are admired for their straightforward advice. Handwritten in the late 19th century by Matsumura, the most celebrated ancestor of karate, they are considered the ethical fountain and technical key to understand what can’t be seen.
This work includes the rare photograph of the original handwritten scroll, approved by the Okinawa Prefectural Museum & Art Museum as well as the owner of the scroll. It also shows the family crest of the Matsumura family, sporting the character of “Bu.”
Matsumura himself pointed out that the “Seven Virtues of Martial Arts” were praised by a wise man in an ancient manuscript, a manuscript that has remained obscure ever since. Now the ultimate source of this wondrous composition has been discovered and verified. Presented and explained here for the first time, it is not only the source of Matsumura’s “Seven Virtues of Martial Arts”… In fact, it is the original meaning of martial arts per se.
5″ x 8″(12.7 x 20.32 cm)
Black & White on Cream paper
80 pages
ISBN-13: 979-8605143611
BISAC: Sports & Recreation / Martial Arts & Self-Defense
Matsumura Sokon: The Seven Virtues of Martial Arts. By Andreas Quast, 2020.
A Stroll Along Ryukyu Martial Arts HistoryPaperback– May 15, 2015
by Andreas Quast (Author)
Paperback edition: available at Amazon US ($14.99), Amazon UK (£9.79), Amazon Germany (EUR 14.97), CreateSpace eStore ($14.99), and at online and offline bookstores and retailers, as well as via public libraries and libraries at other academic institutions.
Based on his acclaimed previous studies, the author here presents a synopsis of the development of Ryukyu martial arts. The events described herein are all real, that is, they are all historical. Strolling along the chronology of martial arts of Ryukyu provenance, a large number of verified events are not only detailed, but also decorated with dozens of precious illustrations. As such “A Stroll Along Ryukyu Martial Arts History” is for martial arts practitioners as much as it is for aficionados of history and Asia. It simply provides a pristine ground to stand on for the practitioner who wishes to understand the primordial origins of Ryukyu martial arts.
For those who read “Karate 1.0”: this new book here is a synopsis of Karate 1.0 plus the “chronology (Part VII)” without significant changes. It is an easier read without all the reasoning and footnotes, but instead with nearly 80 illustrations to make it more suitable for the general public, and not only academic people.
Among the unique information that cannot be found anywhere else are also some of the illustrations. For instance, there is only one picture scroll that shows the Chinese investiture envoys (sapposhi) and their military retinue. Here, for the first time you might see how famous Kusanku actually might have looked like.
The most comprehensive study on the parameters of primordial Karate, this work intrigues readers with rich detail and insights into these ancient combat traditions, the pride of Okinawa.
KARATE 1.0: Parameter of an Ancient Martial Art. Düsseldorf 2013, by Andreas Quast.
Karate 1.0 front cover
Pages: xxvii, 502 pp.
Language: English.
Hardcover binding in green linen material with gold foil stamping, size 8.25″ x 10.75″ (20.95cm x 27.31cm).
Full-color dust jacket in matte finish.
Inside: black and white printing on cream archival paper (60# weight). White exterior paper (80# weight).
Forewords by Patrick McCarthy, Miguel Da Luz, Cezar Borkowski, Jesse Enkamp, Dr. Julian Braun, Soke Leif Hermansson, and Dr. phil. Heiko Bittmann.
Recently, earlier this year, a colleague, Mr. Y, contacted me, saying “The Bo versus Bo practice is from Sakugawa no Kon, isn’t it?” I said, “Most probably not. This is because Akamine Eisuke established a dedicated two-person drill for Sakugawa no Kon Sho. Do you know it?” He replied he had never heard about it, so I sent him the respective record by Akamine Eisuke and he said he will inquire in Okinawa. So there is a good chance this practice will be reintroduced under the radar soon.
Actually, I have never seen it being trained in almost 25 years now so the techniques might have been in disuse for decades, or may have even been discarded or forgotten I don’t know. There might be some older footage of it in private possession so it will be interesting to see if and when it will reappear in the future.
There are two parts played in he kata bunkai, called person A and person B. Both enter the stage and position themselves facing the audience and bow. Next, they turn toward each other and bow. Then, person A demonstrates the part of the kata to be shown as a bunkai towards the audience. Meanwhile, B waits quietly at the side. After A has finished showing the kata part, B positions himself opposite to A in kamae and then both perform the bunkai according to the order.
There are a total of 10 kata bunkai in the following order:
An interesting point is that this set uses techniques and combinations that are usually not considered in the context of Sakugawa no Kon Sho, are not practiced, or are not emphasized in the study of the kata. One person, Mr. Z, told me, “Oh, that one is from Chinen Shikiyanaka no Kon!” Well, it is, but it also in the kata bunkai of Sakugawa no Kon Sho as defined by Akamine, so it shouldn’t be ignored. This kata bunkai raises questions about current concepts and emphases, particular that of basics (kihon) and meanings of movements, and also in relation to how the techniques in the kata are performed. There should be a feedback loop between kata and application or so I thought.
It should also be mentioned that this is the only kata bunkai of the whole school! All other applications are simple “prearranged choreographies” (yakusoku kumite), without studying the kata and tactical concepts deeply. They are more like what is seen in village bojutsu to be honest. This shows that little to no kata bunkai were studied, practiced, and created by the previous generation and I can confirm this from my long years of experience. While some foreigners show off some self-created applications, it is surreal that the only actual kata bunkai created by the founder remained dormant for so long. Today, applications are increasingly being invented or revived. However, I would like to encourage everyone to study and consider the techniques and tactics of the original kata bunkai for Sakugawa no Kon Sho. In the end, this school traces its origin to no-one else than Sakugawa!
BTW, I first posted applications of this kata bunkai back in 2016 on Facebook. Back then, I even received a contemptuous comment by one of the members of the school in question. Maybe he will start learning kata bunkai soon? I also mentioned the Sakugawa kata bunkai in a previous post two years ago, but so far there was no public reaction.
Here’s a shorty on first technique. The tactic is to force the opponent to react by attacking high, and then to counter at the mid level.
In Ryukyu Kobudo the technique of “hiding behind the bō” is found in most of the bōjutsu Kata, including Yonegawa, Tsuken-bō, Chōun, Chatan Yara, Sakugawa Chū Shō and Dai, Urasoe, Sesoko, Kongō and others. In Ryukyu Kobudo of the Taira lineage, this technique is variously referred to as Gyaku-hikkake (reverse hanging hook), Gyaku-te Sukui-uke (reversed scooping), Mamori (defense), and in Okinawa it is called Tate-uke (vertical block) and such. The following rolling move is called Osae-hazushi (uncoupling press), Hikkake (hanging hook), Hiki-sagari (pulling down), and in Okinawa Maki-osae (winding press), etc.pp. The idea of the technique becomes more clear by these words, yet it still is “open construction.” Nothing is actually fixed. Well, looking at the older literary works on Ryukyu Kobudo (1st half of 20th century) it gets clear that the establishment of a unified technical terminology took place – for the most part – in the 2nd half of the 20th century only, and with different result in different groups (dojo, associations, …). There are hardly any “old” or even Okinawna language names for techniques and most of the original tactics were probably lost by then anyway, and the new names were inspired by fragmentary personal instruction, what some guy might have remembered, or borrowed from other Japanese martial arts. But it is clear that these terminologies were invented.
Posted inTerminology|Comments Off on The invention of kobudo terminology
On March 6, 1921, during Crown Prince Hirohito’s visit to Europe, the escort battleships Katori, captained by Okinawa-born Captain Kanna Kenwa, temporarily anchored in Nakagusuku Bay, and Crown Prince Hirohito took a light railway to Yonabaru. From there, he took a rickshaw to Naha Station, stopped at the prefectural office, and then traveled to Shuri. There are various reports of martial arts demonstrated for the crown prince during this occasion. The most famous is a karate demonstration led by Funakoshi Gichin, of which Funakoshi himself provided a commemorative photo in his earlier publications. Looking at Funakoshi’s photo, there are also bō and sai in the photo, so it is usually assumed that Funakoshi knew and taught bō and sai as a senior.
I would like to ask a few questions here. First of all, are the people in the photo Funakoshi’s students? Second, where there other martial arts performances?
Place of Performance
Often it is said that Funakoshi “led a karate performance” at the main palace (seiden) of Shuri Castle. It sometimes sounds as if it took place inside the main palace, but if you have ever been inside, this is doubtful from space limitations and also for reasons of the sacrosanct nature of this place. Instead, and as several sources indicate, martial art demonstrations took place on the courtyard (unā), which is the center of Shuri Castle. Standing on this courtyard, the main hall (seiden) is in front, the Northern Hall is to the left (north side), and the Southern Hall is on the right (southern side).
A: Courtyard (unā). 1. Main hall (seiden). 2. Northern Hall (hokuden). 3. Southern Hall (nanden). 4. Entry gates.
Various ceremonies were held on this courtyard throughout the year, and it is covered with rows of tiles of different colors that form a pattern for officials to line up according to rank during ceremonies. The central path was called the “Floating Road” because it was a path traversed only by a very limited number of people, such as the king or the Chinese investiture envoys, meaning they would float through yet above the other ranks.
From this reason, any martial art demonstration would probably have taken place on the left or the right side of the courtyard, but never in the center. There might have even been a temporary stage set up at any side, left or right, but details are unknown.
Students of Funakoshi?
As seen in Funakoshi’s photo, there was also bō and sai, but who were these people? Even though it is possible, I have never seen any source that was able to identify any of them as one of Funakoshi’s karate students.
Now, there were also other martial arts demonstrations on that day. For instance, in the stories of Kakazu village it is said that a welcome banquet was held for Imperial Crown Prince Hirohito on the courtyard (ūna) in front of Shuri Castle’s Main Hall, and that young men from Kakazu subvillage of Tomigusuku performed bōjutsu for his majesty.
Let’s compare the old photos to get more leads.
On top, photo A is Funakoshi’s photo. Funakoshi is seated in the center, with arms crossed. All wear the same clothes, namely a white headband tied in the rear (1), a white undershirt (2), and a black hakama (3). The only difference between Funakoshi and everybody else is that instead of a white undershirt, Funakoshi wears a white jacket with wider sleeves. This as well as his central position in the photo and posture with arms crossed most likely formally showed his seniority.
Photo A: Funakoshi and a group of leaders in 1921. Commemorative photo of martial arts performances for Crown Prince Hirohito. Photo B and C: Akamine Yōhei (left) and Higa Nisaburō (1900–81) from Kakazu, with unidentified leader in the center.
Below it, photo B shows the bōjutsu performers from Kakazu at the time. Just like everyone except Funakoshi in photo A, the central person in photo B wears a white headband (1), a white undershirt (2), and a black hakama (3). And this person was obviously the squad leader of the two young men and possibly more young men, who performed bōjutsu. These two young men also wear a white headband but tied in the front (1′) such as done in male dances of Okinawa, a white undershirt (2′), but instead of a black hakama they wear a dark sash and white trousers (3′).
From the comparison of above two photos A and B it seems that the persons in Funakoshi photos A were not necessarily his students who performed karate and kobudō led by Funakoshi, but possibly they were squad leaders of their own individual performing groups. They might have come from Shuri, or maybe even from various schools from Okinawa who led their own regional martial art team, just like the central person in photo B. The clothes they were wearing in these two photos most likely were the formal clothes standardized for this important event. If so, the performers’ clothes should have been such as those worn by the two young men left and right in photo B.
The two young men left and right in photo B are Akamine Yōhei (left, 1906–87) and Higa Nisaburō (right, 1900–81) from Kakazu. The squad leader in the center is unidentified, but it is the same person as in the center of photo C.
Who were the squad leaders?
The squad leader in the center of photo B and C allows for another option. Since the two young men left and right in photo B and C are identified as young men (seinen), it is possible and actually likely that among the martial arts performers were not only students of various schools, but also those from the socio-demographic group called “young men” (seinen), which refers to the group of young men after graduation from elementary school at around 13 or 14 until conscription into the military at age 20. Such young men were gathered in so-called young men corps (seinendan) in their subvillages, where they would take part in various activities under leaders, often local reservists, or soldiers, and would play sports and athletics, martial arts including bō and bayonet fencing, participate in each village’s events and so on. Like this, while the person in the center of photos A and B might have been a schoolteacher in Kakazu, he also might have been a leader of Kakazu’s local young men corps (seinendan). And this can also be said about the persons in Funakoshi’s photo.
What became of the bōjutsu of Kakazu?
The following is the inheritance as recorded in the Kakazu village tradition.
The origin of Kakazu Bō is Sakugawa Kanga (1762–1843), a samurē and native of Akata in Shuri, who was famously known as “Karate Sakugawa,” “Bō Sakugawa,” and Sakugawa Pēchin. Chinen Sanrā (1840–1922), commonly known as “Old commoner Yamannī,” inherited the bōjutsu from Sakugawa. Chinen Sanrā in turn began teaching bōjutsu to the young men (seinen) of Kakazu around 1922. Chinen’s students included Higa Sei’ichirō (1890–1991), Higa Raisuke (1904–89), Akamine Yōhei (1906–87), and Higa Nisaburō (1900–81), who studied Sakugawa no Kon, Shūshi no Kon, Yonegawa no Kon, and Shirotaru no Kon, respectively. Although Chinen Sanrāwas already eighty-two years old at the time, he was very strong. The instruction was held in the yard in front of the village’s place of worship (uganju). All the disciples took off their tops, placed their hands together in prayer, and then began practice. It is said that the training sessions were so rigorous and earnest, like fighting with real swords, that fresh bruises never ceased to occur. It is also said that if Chinen Sanrā found it worthwhile, he would sometimes stay overnight to teach the young men.
After having received this instruction, the four men in turn continued to teach bōjutsu to the group of young men of Kakazu. The bōjutsu taught by the four was also practiced intensely, and in case of partner practice (kumite), the more inexperienced people were, the harder they hit each other with the bō, making loud noises and the bō would also often break, so much that even though two full-time carpenters were producing bō every day, they were unable to produce them in time.
It is said that Yamannī-ryū practice is so intense that if you miss by 15 mm, you will die, and before anyone knew it, it was feared by people in nearby villages as “Kakazu Bō.”
Inheritance of Kakazu Bō
The number of successors to Kakazu Bō, which demanded too strict discipline, gradually decreased, but Akamine Eisuke (1926–1999), the second president of the Ryukyu Kobudo Preservation and Promotion Association, mastered each of the four kata handed down by Old Commoner Chinen under the guidance of their respective masters.
Afterwards, his son Hiroshi (third generation chairman of the Ryukyu Kobudo Preservation and Promotion Association) took over this work, and while teaching at the Shinbukan dōjō in Nesabu, Tomigusuku City, he taught the four kata to his students as the “Yamanni-ryū no bō.” Today, “Yamanni-ryū no bō” has become Okinawa’s representative bōjutsu.
L.t.r.: Higa Raisuke with Shūshi no Kon, Akamine Yōhei with Yonegawa no Kon, Higa Sei’ichirō with Sakugawa no Kon, and Higa Nisaburō with Shirotaru no Kon.
Note that the above is from a history book prepared by a subvillage community center, and is less reliable than a city history or even a prefectural or national history. The advantage however is that such histories of such small places include many personal stories of villagers, such as can be seen in this case of Kakazu Bō. To complement the given data, it should be noted here that Kuniyoshi Yukio, who took over as chairman of the Ryukyu Kobudo Preservation and Promotion Association in 2013, learned all of the four kata directly from Akamine Eisuke and also teaches them.
Btw, I also mention Kakazu Bō in my latest book, including a link to Sakugawa no Kon of Kakazu Bō (Yamanni no Bō).
Some time ago, I wrote about the development of the Okinawan dojo, which is at the core of modern Okinawa karate. Without dojo, there would be no Okinawa karate. Of course, this blog post is pretty limited, but it is a big topic that should be considered carefully, from the military training area at Kume during the kingdom era to the open spaces called Uganju of each village, to Shikina-en guard house where Matsumura taught, to the Normal school and Middle school of the early 20th century, Motobu Choyu’s karate study group in the 1920s, to the Okinawa Butokuden in 1939. So there are several phases that need to be distinguished.
Originally, Okinawan dojo of the early 20th century were institutionalized places such as at schools or police, while private dojo were largely outdoor places. As a general rule, full-fledged private Okinawan indoor dojo developed in the postwar era, during the time of US government until 1972.
Recently, Emanuel Sensei of Shorin-ryu Torino, Italy, shared a photo of Chibana Choshin’s Karate Research Institute in 1929. I am not sure but I guess it was an outdoor dojo as well. I have inquired with Emanuel and he’s trying to find out more.
As regards the first confirmed full-fledged, dedicated Okinawan indoor dojo so far, it seems to have been opened by Nagamine Shoshin. Established in 1942, Nagamine built a new dojo of approximately 39.6m². At the opening ceremony, 71-year-old Kyan Chotoku gave a commemorative martial arts demonstration of Passai and bojutsu.
Around that time, a student of Keiō University Karate Club visited Okinawa, which is still remembered in the records of the Keio University Karate Club. At that time, the central persons of Okinawa Karate were Hanashiro Chomo and Miyagi Chojun, but it is said that only Nagamine Shōshin had a formal indoor karate dojo instead of using the yard as a training place.
So, what was the first private dojo in Okinawa? I and the global karate community would appreciate any additional information.
Wooden poles have undoubtedly been used across all times, cultures, and geographical areas to overcome natural obstacles such as waterways, marshy places, or mountainous areas, and sometimes even man-made obstacles. It is easy to imagine how children used it during play, in games and pastime, or by adults as working aid.
Besides, there is also clear archaeological and literary evidence.
Early forms of pole vaulting were held by ancient Greeks, Cretans used long sticks to swing over bulls, and the Celts are known to have used poles for long jumps.
In youth education, pole vaulting has been known to German gymnasts (Turner) since around 1775 and was detailed in 1793 by Gutsmuths, the “grandfather of physical education.”
Following the Age of Reason, the earliest recorded pole vault competition where height was measured took place at the Ulverston Football and Cricket Club, Lancashire, north of the sands (now Cumbria) in 1843. A few years later, in 1849, Francis Temple reached 3.15 m and soon competitions also started in continental Europe. Pole vault became an Olympic discipline for men in 1896, with a record that year of about 3.2 meters. From there, records progressed to 4.02 m in 1912 (Marc Wright), 4.54 m in 1937 (Bill Sefton und Earle Meadows), 5.00 m in 1963 (Brian Sternberg), and 5.51 m in 1972 (Kjell Isaksson). Following the introduction of fiberglass poles in the early 1970s, the 6.00 m mark was first reached in 1985 (Serhij Bubka). Today, the average height reached in pole vault is around 4.50 meters for women and around 6 meters for men.
As regards Japan, during the Olympics, Japanese athletes reached 3.90m in 1928, 4.30m in 1932, 4.25m in 1936, 4.20m in 1952, 5.50m in 2005 and 2016, and 5.75m in 2013. Japan’s current top ten records are 5.60 to 5.83m for men (high schools 5.25 to 5.51m), and 4.20 to 4.48m for women (high schools 4.00 to 4.16m). Pole vault is also an Olympic discipline for women since 2000, and is also a decathlon discipline, while in Japan, female records are officially recognized as Japanese records since 1993.
On Okinawa, pole vault has been carried out at least since November 1903, when it was adopted for the athletic meet of the Middle school in Shuri (Ryūkyū Kyōiku). Within the political encouragement of physical education during the Taishō era (1912-1926), young men associations (seinendan) hosted athletic meets by pressuring other groups such as the improvement association (kōjōkai), women’s associations (fujinkai), virgin associations, elementary school children, and students into participation. In addition to holding athletic meets, the young men association of Miyagi in Haebaru Village abolished Eisā dance, and instead encouraged traditional athletic cultures such as Okinawan sumō, bōjutsu, and sashi-ishi (a stone through which a wooden bar is inserted), as well as activities promoting endurance, such as military exercises for pupils (kyōren), walking, horizontal bar, tug-of-war, and sword fencing (gekken), and they recommended track-and-field events such as pole vault, shot put, long jump, triple jump, and high jump.
In short, pole vault as an athletic discipline was carried out in Okinawa since the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries.
Well, the history of pole vault as a sport as well as some of its folk variations are readily available on Wikipedia, obviously with an emphasis on competition sport. Beside of that, I have researched another lead that might be entertaining for some. That is, German youth educator Gutsmuths (1759–1839) described it in detail with a few plates and technical illustration already in 1793 in his “Gymnastics for the Youth.” In it, Gutsmuths notes a first historical trace on pole vault, stating,
“I have not found any trace of the [pole vault] exercise in any antiquarian works. However, the fact it was common among the Ancients can be seen from a passage by Ovid where Nestor, using his lance, swings himself onto the branches of an oak tree in order to escape the Calydonian boar.” (Gutsmuths 1793: 298)
This refers to the Calydonian Boar Hunt in Ovid’s “Metamorphoses” (“Transformations”).
Almost 200 years after Gutsmuths, the same story is mentioned as the “first recorded pole vault in literature,” saying,
“Nestor, for example, avoids the boar by a desperate move: he pole-vaults into the branches of a nearby tree.” […] “Nestor gets a spring from his spear which he has ‘bravely’ perverted into a pole for the first recorded ‘pole vault’ in literature” (Anderson 1972: 357, 366).
The full passage is as follows:
“Perhaps the Pylian Prince, Nestor, would have perished even before the Trojan War, but he leaped by his spear-pole with all his strength into a tree which stood nearby, and from the safety of the branches he looked down upon the enemy he had escaped” (Anderson 1972: 91).
I have no idea how Gutsmuths and Anderson located this source prior to the rise of the internet, but miracles happen.
Gutsmuths understood the value of pole vault for physical education. He describes jumping as
“one of the most beautiful gymnastic exercises. Feet, legs, knees and thighs, the entire body is strengthened and made flexible, every muscle is tensed, courage invigorated, the sense of visual judgement is exceedingly sharpened, and a mastery of body balance is gradually achieved that protects us from dangerous falls” (Gutsmuths 1793: 276).
As a natural ratio and significance in education, Gutsmuths notes that
“In daily life as well, where streams, ditches and a thousand obstacles can often only be overcome by jumping, a physical jump is certainly just as useful in real life as an ideal one is beautiful in poetry. […] Determination thus achieved will be part of the boys’ characters as men in the future” (Gutsmuths 1793: 276).
Turning to the vertical pole vault in particular, he explains the advantages for youth education as thus.
“This type of vault jump requires far more courage, visual judgement, and body balance than the normal jump. At the same time, it exercises the muscles of the chest, shoulders, arms and hands, which are inactive in the normal jump” (Gutsmuths 1793: 297–298).
Next, he explains the procedure in reference to an illustration found at the end of his work. It is the description of the exercise as has been carried out in 1793. I will quote it in full.
“This exercise is done on the same spot as the jump without a pole and with the same procedure, but by using a 2.10 to 3 m long, not too heavy pole that is strong enough to support the body and to swing over the bar.
Exercise: – The body should be swung over a given height supported by a pole. To do so, the vaulter holds the staff in both hands, the left at the bottom, the right at the top, as shown in Fig. 2.
Both arms are separated quite far apart. The lower arm supports the body while jumping, the upper arm serves to pull the body upwards. The vaulter vigorously runs up, depending on the given height, with 10 to 15 steps, places the pointed end of the pole down, neither to the left nor the right, but straight in front of his feet, 30 to 60 cm in front of the bar, provides his body a violent momentum through the high-speed strength of his feet and the pull of his hands, thereby gaining a strong upswing in positions xx, and swings his feet in an arc-like route from xx via y to zz, or otherwise, if the staff is gripped at a longer position, via o or p to zz.
Fig. 3 indicates the matter with mere lines, in which ab represents the bar, and cd the pole. In position AA, the hands form a fixed point around which the vaulter’s body swings. Like this, the vaulter may reach through all the positions indicated by the lines AB until he finally reaches position AC, at which point he lowers his feet at C and so reaches the ground on the other side of the bar. […]
I have seen several boys and aspiring teens overleap their own body height by 76.2 to 96.52 cm, and jump over 254 cm with a body height of 157.48 cm.” (Gutsmuths 1793: 299–300)
Fig. 1 on the left shows the bar construction with the bar on line “a-b”. Fig. 2 shows position xx from where to jump off, the positions to pass through, namely point y for beginners and points o and p for experts, and the landing position zz. Figure 3 on the right shows the bar (a-b), the pole (c-d), the position during the vault (B and C), and the angle where to fix both hands and swing the body around (A-A).
The text together with the illustrations provides an amazingly accurate and logical instruction. First of all, it says that, other than today, they used a double-handed underhand. This was due to the stiffness of the pole on one hand, and the technique used with the lower arm supporting the body weight while jumping, and the upper arm serving to pull the body upwards. While this is from 1793, this kind of double-handed underhand grip obviously still in use a century later, as shown in the following photo of 1890 taken at the US Naval Academy.
Pole vault at US Navy Academy, 1890. Source: Wikipedia.
As can geometrically inferred from the photo, the height of the vault may well be 3 meters or more. As Gutsmuths described, by 1793, among boys and male teens, some who were 157.48 cm tall would jump over a bar of 254 cm, which is amazing, isn’t it. Considering an adult trained in Gutsmuths’ method, it may well be assumed that a well-trained adult gymnast was able to overjump 3 meters at the end of the 18th century. Actually, when considering a person jumping through point p as shown in Gutsmuths’ illustration above, this will be a height of around 3 meters.
Boys during pole vault (rear) and normal high jump (front) as physical education for the youth, 1793.
You may wonder why I write this on this blog, which is a martial arts blog. Well, there is an well known Okinawan karate master who was good at pole vault when younger. Here’s a translation from an interview published 2015. It is the following.
Eternal rivals who thrilled the crowd with their pole vault
■ Hiroshi Akamine (hereinafter referred to as Hiroshi): I started this in 1973. When I joined the young persons’ association at that time, I had to participate in one of the athletic competitions. I was a member of the track and field club at Okinawa University. Since I wasn’t as strong at long distances as my cousin [Higa] Akira-san, who was mentioned earlier, I competed during the [Kakazu’s] village’s track-and-field meet in pole vault, which I had tried in high school. Then I jumped 3.10 m and won the title.
Next, I advanced on to the Shimajiri Games, where those who placed second or higher would qualify for the Prefectural Games. Unfortunately, I had a state examination on the day of the Shimajiri Games, so I declined to participate. On the day of the competition, after the examination was over, I hurried to the sporting venue in Kochinda. Then, the pole vault competition reached its climax, and the victories were between a height of 3.20m and 3.30m. I was watching the sports game, thinking that with this, I could win next year.
■ Moderator: Were the poles used at that time made of bamboo? Or did you use glass fiber?
■ Hiroshi: Until the early 1970s, all athletes used bamboo. One year at the Shimajiri Games, I thought it would end at 3.30m, but Inoue, an athlete from Kochinda, who had been giving a pass all the time, started jumping from 3.50m. When I looked at it, I noticed that the flexibility of the pole was different. He was using a fiberglass pole. At that time, I realized that there was no way I could compete with a bamboo pole.
So, I asked my cousin Akira, “Does anyone I know use fiberglass?” He replied, “There is!” I was quickly introduced and started practicing using a fiberglass pole at Onoyama Track and Field Stadium.
■ Moderator: How much did your record improve by changing to fiberglass?
■ Hiroshi: With the bamboo pole it was 3m 10 cm, but when I replaced it with a fiberglass pole, it became 4.15m.
■ Moderator: Wow, that’s an amazing growth. In what year did you win against Inoue of Kochinda, who first used fiberglass at the Shimajiri Games?
■ Hiroshi: That was 1975. At that time, I won first place and Mr. Inoue won the second place. Also, since then I was a good rival with Mr. Inoue, sharing first and second places. After that, Mr. Inoue and I always represented Shimajiri district in the Prefectural Games. I left the world of pole vaulting in 1983.
Karate disciple breaks Shimajiri record
■ Moderator: Is Hiroshi’s height of 4.15m the record at the Shimajiri Games?
■ Hiroshi: That record is from when I won 3rd place at the Prefectural Games. Until now, it was also the record for the Shimajiri District, but recently a university student jumped 4.50m, so my record was broken. Actually, he is my favorite karate student. (laughs)
I was a pole vaulter for about 10 years, from the age of 19 (1973) to the age of 29 (1983). The reason (I stopped) was to become more devoted to karate.
■ Moderator: Thank you. Hiroshi is currently the director of a karate dojo.
Martial arts bōjutsu and traditional bō performing arts have a long history of co-existence and cross fertilization. Traditional bō performing arts entered martial arts dōjō, and martial arts kata enter traditional bō performing arts. The most visible differences are in the clothing, the occasion of performance, and in the music that provides the beat and pauses.
Iha Mitsutada of Ryukonkai performing bo to the Kajadifū.
One of the typical musical pieces used to accompany traditional bō performing arts is Kagiyadefū, which is Japanese pronunciation of the Okinawan Kajadifū. It is one of the representative musical pieces of Ryūkyū classical music that is always played at festivals in Okinawa. It is played by the three-stringed sanshin accompanied by singing, is also treated as a dance song, and is sometimes accompanied by the 13-stringed Japanese zither (koto), taiko drums, flute, and the 3- or 4-stringed bowed Japanese instrument called kokyū.
Find out all about traditional bō performing arts of Okinawa and Kajadifūin my latest book, “Bo.”
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Dear friends, followers, and supporters. I have published my new book “Bo.” The hardcover edition went live with a page count of 266 pages. However, I wanted to change the type area and as a result, the current edition has 300 pages. However, the content remained the same. There are simply less words on each page, making it a larger total page count.
If you have any further questions, please contact me via Facebook messenger.
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The video shows Bō-taoshi held at the Naha City Mawashi Junior High School Sports Day, 1970s. Bō-taoshi is a combat sport performed at athletic meets. The object is to topple the opposing team’s pole (bō). In bō-taoshi, there is a group of defenders who hold up and protect a pole, and a group of attackers who aim to pull off the defenders one by one to knock down their pole.
Since it is fun but a bit rough, I am not sure if it is still done in schools today.
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I wrote about Kongō no Kon recently, which was created by Taira Shinken based on elements taken from Sueyoshi no Kon, Sesoko no Kon, and Soeishi no Kon. Then Mr. Y, one of the inquirers, asked about another kata called Kongō he had heard several years ago and which was published in the Karate-dō Taikan in 1938, and that it was a variation of Shūshi no Kon.
And that’s right. At that time, Taira reformed old-style Shūshi no Kon and renamed it Kongōno Kata. Actually, the exact title of the chapter in question reads “Kongōno Kata (formerly known as Shūshi no Kon.”
However, at some later point in time, Taira reversed this, created Shūshi no KonShō and Dai, and then at some point created Kongō no Kon as a completely different kata. This must be seen in context with Taira trying this and that since the 1930s through to the 1960s.
Anyway, Taira’s 1938 attempt of “Kongōno Kata (formerly known as Shūshi no Kon)” is still interesting. It is composed of illustrations and accompanying text. There are several things to note and some technical specifics that are quite intruiging. Therefore, I made a video explaning everything and showing the kata for consideration.
In addition, and since it was sitting on one of my drives anyway, I prepared an English translation of the kata. As a side note, I took the photos of the kata from the Karate-dō Taikan in 2009 in the study of the late Nagamine Shōshin sensei at the Kōdōkan, Matsubayashi-ryū Honbu Dōjō in Naha Kumoji, with the consent of Nagamine Takayoshi sensei. That was an original 1938 edition, but I used a cheap camera or phone (I don’t remember) so the quality is not good.